What is Vector in Biology?

Vector Definition Biology

In genetics, Vector can be defined as a DNA molecule used as a mediator to transfer foreign genetic material into another host cell.

Vectors are commonly used in molecular biology and genetic engineering to introduce new genetic material into cells for research purposes, to produce recombinant proteins, or to modify an organism’s genetic makeup.

In the context of genetic engineering, a vector can be a plasmid, a virus, or a transposon that carries foreign genetic material into a host cell. In this case, the vector serves as a delivery vehicle for the genetic material, allowing it to be introduced into the host cell and potentially integrated into the host genome.

Properties of Vectors in Biology

  1. Specificity: Vectors often have a specific host range or range of organisms that they can infect or transmit genetic material to.
  2. Stability: Vectors must be able to maintain their genetic payload during replication and transmission to ensure that the delivered material is intact.
  3. Efficiency: Vectors must be able to efficiently deliver their payload to the target organism or cell to ensure successful transmission.
  4. Safety: In genetic engineering applications, vectors must be designed to minimize the risk of unintended effects on the host organism or its environment.
  5. Traceability: Vectors must be easily identifiable and trackable to allow for monitoring and control of their transmission and potential impact on ecosystems or populations.

Plasmid

Plasmids are small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecules that exist independently of the chromosomal DNA in bacteria, archaea, and some eukaryotic cells. They can replicate autonomously and can be transferred between cells, making them important tools for genetic engineering and biotechnology.

Structure of Plasmids

Plasmids typically range in size from 1 to 300 kilobases and contain genes that confer various functions, such as antibiotic resistance, virulence, or metabolic pathways. They have several key components, including an origin of replication, which allows them to replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA, and a selectable marker, which confers a trait that can be selected for during genetic engineering experiments.

Significance of Plasmids

Plasmids are widely used in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between cells, making them valuable tools for introducing new genes into organisms or modifying existing ones. For example, plasmids can be used to express proteins of interest, create genetically modified organisms, or produce therapeutic molecules such as insulin or human growth hormone.

Limitations of Plasmids

However, there are also some limitations to plasmid use as follows:

  1. Plasmids can be unstable, meaning that they can be lost or degraded over time, which can limit their usefulness in long-term experiments.
  2. They may also disrupt the normal functioning of the host organism if they insert into important genes or regulatory regions.
  3. Plasmids have a limited capacity for the amount of DNA that they can carry, which can be a limitation when attempting to insert large or complex genes or genetic elements.
  4. Plasmids can be unstable and may be lost or degraded over time, particularly in the absence of selection pressure, which can limit their usefulness as long-term genetic tools.
  5. Plasmids are not integrated into the host genome, which means that they are not passed on to daughter cells during cell division. This can limit their utility for certain types of genetic studies.
  6. The copy number of plasmids within a cell can vary widely, which can affect their expression and stability, as well as the level of expression of genes carried on the plasmid.
  7. Many plasmids contain antibiotic resistance genes, which can pose a risk to public health if they are released into the environment or if they are transferred to pathogenic bacteria.

Examples of Plasmids

There are many types of plasmids found in nature, and they can be classified based on their size, function, and host organism. Here are a few examples:

  1. F-plasmid: This plasmid is found in E. coli and is responsible for the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells during conjugation.
  2. pBR322: This plasmid is widely used in molecular biology and is commonly used as a cloning vector. It contains genes for antibiotic resistance and for the replication and maintenance of the plasmid.
  3. Ti plasmid: This plasmid is found in the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens and is used as a vector to genetically engineer plants. It contains genes for the transfer of DNA to plant cells, as well as genes for the production of plant hormones that cause the formation of tumors.
  4. Col plasmids: These plasmids are found in many different types of bacteria and contain genes for the production of bacteriocins, which are proteins that kill or inhibit the growth of other bacteria.
  5. R-plasmids: These plasmids contain genes for antibiotic resistance and are found in many types of bacteria. They are a major concern for public health as they can be transferred between bacteria, leading to the spread of antibiotic resistance.
  6. pUC18: This plasmid is commonly used as a cloning vector in molecular biology. It contains genes for ampicillin resistance and blue/white screening, which allows for the selection and identification of bacterial cells that have taken up the plasmid.
  7. IncQ plasmids: These plasmids are small, low-copy number plasmids found in a variety of bacteria. They are often used as cloning vectors and for the expression of recombinant proteins.
  8. P1 plasmid: This plasmid is found in E. coli and is used for transduction, a process by which bacterial DNA is transferred between cells via a bacteriophage.
  9. BACs (Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes): These plasmids are large, high-copy number plasmids that can accommodate very large DNA fragments (up to 300 kb) and are often used for genomic studies and large-scale sequencing projects.
  10. pGEX plasmids: These plasmids are used for the expression and purification of recombinant proteins fused to glutathione S-transferase (GST). They are commonly used in protein-protein interaction studies.

PUC18 plasmid

  • PUC18 plasmid is a widely used cloning vector in molecular biology.
  • PUC18 contains the high-copy number origin of replication (ori) from the pmb1 plasmid. This allows for rapid and efficient replication of the plasmid in bacteria, leading to high yields of the plasmid.
  • PUC18 carries two selectable markers which are ampicillin resistance gene (ampr) and lacz alpha-complementation region. The ampicillin resistance gene allows bacteria carrying the plasmid to grow in the presence of the antibiotic ampicillin. The lacz alpha-complementation region allows for blue-white screening of bacterial colonies to identify those that have taken up the plasmid.
  • PUC18 contains multiple cloning sites (MCS) that allow for insertion of foreign DNA fragments into the plasmid. The MCS in PUC18 contains 13 unique restriction enzyme sites, allowing for flexibility in the choice of cloning strategy.
  • PUC18 is 2686 base pairs in size and has been sequenced and extensively studied, making it a well-characterized and reliable vector for cloning.
  • PUC18 plasmid is commonly used for gene cloning, protein expression, and genetic engineering in a variety of organisms, including bacteria, yeast, and mammalian cells. It is also used as a control vector in many molecular biology experiments.
  • Like all plasmids, PUC18 has some limitations. It is relatively small, which can limit the size of DNA fragments that can be cloned into it. Additionally, it may not be suitable for some applications that require high levels of protein expression or large-scale production of recombinant proteins.

pBR 322

Structure of pBR 322
  • pBR322 is a small, circular DNA molecule that is approximately 4.4 kilobases in size.
  • It contains two antibiotic resistance genes (ampicillin and tetracycline), a multiple cloning site (MCS), and genes for the replication and maintenance of the plasmid in bacterial cells.
Application of pBR 322
  • pBR322 is commonly used as a cloning vector in molecular biology research.
  • The multiple cloning site allows for the insertion of DNA fragments in a variety of orientations, enabling the production of recombinant proteins or the study of gene function.
  • The plasmid’s antibiotic resistance genes allow for the selection of bacterial cells that have taken up the plasmid.
  • The loss of β-galactosidase activity in the lacZ gene can be used as a marker for the successful insertion of the DNA fragment into the plasmid.
Advantages of pBR 322 over other plasmids
  • pBR322 has a relatively high copy number, which allows for the production of large amounts of recombinant proteins.
  • Its antibiotic resistance genes make it useful for the selection of bacterial cells that have taken up the plasmid.
  • The MCS allows for the insertion of DNA fragments in a variety of orientations, which makes it a versatile cloning vector.
Limitations of pBR 322
  • PBR322 has a small (Multiple Cloning Site) MCS as compared to other plasmids and cosmids, which can limits the size of DNA fragments that can be inserted.
  • The lacZ gene is located within the MCS, which means that the loss of β-galactosidase activity can only be used as a marker for the successful insertion of DNA fragments within that region.
  • The use of antibiotic resistance genes can raise concerns about the spread of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations.

Cosmid

  1. Cosmids are hybrid plasmid vectors that contain the cos site of bacteriophage lambda. This allows them to be packaged into lambda phage particles and efficiently transferred into bacterial cells.
  2. Cosmids typically contain an origin of replication for replication in bacterial cells, selectable markers for identifying bacteria that have taken up the cosmid, and cloning sites for insertion of DNA fragments.
  3. Cosmids have a larger insert capacity than traditional plasmids, typically ranging from 30-50 kb. This makes them useful for cloning larger DNA fragments that are not amenable to traditional cloning techniques, such as genomic DNA or large cDNA fragments.
  4. Cosmids contain selectable markers, such as antibiotic resistance genes or auxotrophic markers, that allow for identification and selection of bacteria that have taken up the cosmid. This is important for ensuring that only bacteria containing the desired recombinant cosmid are grown and analyzed.
  5. Cosmids are commonly used in molecular biology to clone large DNA fragments into bacterial cells. They are particularly useful for constructing genomic libraries, which can be screened for specific genes or regions of interest. In addition, cosmids can be used for mapping and sequencing large DNA fragments, as well as for gene expression studies and functional analyses.
  6. The main advantage of cosmids over traditional plasmids is their larger insert capacity. This allows for cloning of larger DNA fragments, which may contain entire genes or regulatory regions that are important for gene expression. Additionally, the presence of the cos site allows for efficient packaging of the cosmid into lambda phage particles, which can be used to transfer the cosmid into bacterial cells.
  7. Like all plasmids, their are some limitations of cosmids. They can be unstable and may have low copy numbers, which can limit their usefulness in certain applications. Additionally, the presence of the cos site can interfere with some cloning strategies, and the packaging process can be inefficient, leading to low yields of recombinant cosmids.

Phagemid

  1. Phagemids are hybrid vectors that combine the features of plasmids and filamentous bacteriophages.
  2. They typically contain an origin of replication for replication in bacterial cells, a selectable marker for identifying bacteria that have taken up the phagemid, and cloning sites for insertion of DNA fragments. In addition, they contain the phage packaging signal, which allows them to be packaged into phage particles.
  3. Phagemids have a smaller insert capacity than cosmids, typically ranging from 1-10 kb. This makes them useful for cloning smaller DNA fragments that can be easily handled by traditional cloning techniques.
  4. Phagemids contain selectable markers, such as antibiotic resistance genes or auxotrophic markers, that allow for identification and selection of bacteria that have taken up the phagemid. This is important for ensuring that only bacteria containing the desired recombinant phagemid are grown and analyzed.
  5. Phagemids are commonly used in molecular biology for generating libraries of DNA fragments that can be used for screening for specific genes or regions of interest. They are also useful for generating and screening for protein-protein interactions and for identifying protein binding sites on DNA fragments.
  6. The main advantage of phagemids is their ability to be easily packaged into phage particles, which allows for efficient transfer into bacterial cells. In addition, phagemids are easy to handle and manipulate, making them useful for a wide range of applications.
  7. With numerous advantages their are some limitations of Phagemids They have a smaller insert capacity than cosmids, which limits their usefulness for cloning larger DNA fragments. In addition, the presence of the phage packaging signal can interfere with some cloning strategies, and the packaging process can be inefficient, leading to low yields of recombinant phagemids.

Supervectors

Supervectors are large DNA vectors that can accommodate very large DNA fragments, ranging from 50 kb to 1 Mb or more.

They typically consist of a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) or yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) backbone, with additional features such as selectable markers, cloning sites, and origins of replication. Supervectors are often used for cloning and studying large genomic regions or entire genomes.

YACs are artificial chromosomes that are based on the genetic elements of yeast. They can accommodate very large DNA fragments, ranging from 100 kb to over 1 Mb. Yacs have a centromere, two telomeres, and a selectable marker, and can be propagated in yeast cells. Yacs are useful for studying large genomic regions and entire genomes, as well as for constructing human-mouse hybrid cell lines for studying human disease.

BACs are artificial chromosomes that are based on the genetic elements of bacteria. They can accommodate DNA fragments ranging from 100 kb to over 300 kb. Bacs have a selectable marker, an origin of replication, and a cloning site, and can be propagated in bacterial cells. Bacs are useful for cloning and studying large genomic regions, as well as for generating transgenic animals for studying gene function and disease.

Applications of Supervectors

  1. Supervectors, YAC, and BAC are commonly used in molecular biology for cloning and studying large genomic regions or entire genomes.
  2. They are also useful for generating transgenic animals for studying gene function and disease.
  3. YACs are often used for constructing human-mouse hybrid cell lines, while BACs are frequently used for generating transgenic mice and other animals.
  4. Supervectors are useful for studying the organization and function of large genomic regions, as well as for studying entire genomes.

Advantages of Supervectors

  1. The main advantage of supervectors, yacs, and bacs is their ability to accommodate very large DNA fragments, which allows for the cloning and study of large genomic regions and entire genomes.
  2. In addition, they are useful for generating transgenic animals for studying gene function and disease. Bacs and yacs are also useful for studying the organization and function of large genomic regions.

Limitations of Supervectors

  1. The main limitation of supervectors, yacs, and bacs is that they are more difficult to handle and manipulate than smaller DNA vectors, such as plasmids or phagemids.
  2. They may be less stable than smaller DNA vectors, and may suffer from problems such as rearrangements or deletions during propagation.
  3. Since, they are relatively large, it may be more difficult to obtain pure preparations of supervectors, yacs, or bacs.

Leave a Comment